1.

To our surprise, we are seeing sunlight whenever we look at a rainbow: When sunlight pierces raindrops in the atmosphere at just the right angle (42 degrees), a rainbow forms. First, the rays of light enter the top of the spherical raindrops. Then, the raindrops act like prisms. In other words, they bend the white light of the sun's rays and split it into its seven component colors as it exits the drops of water. Finally, the light passes out of the bottom of the raindrops and shines through to us on the ground. Our eyes see red light coming from droplets of water higher in the sky, violet light coming from droplets of water lower in the sky, and five other colors of the spectrum in between. Consequently, we see an arch of colors, with red always on top. Because they are products of sunshine and rain, rainbows appear more frequently from spring through fall when both elements are more plentiful. But even then, rainbows most often appear around sunrise or sunset because the sun is nearer to the horizon at those times.

2.

A euphemism is a more agreeable word or phrase that takes the place of a disagreeable or offensive word or phrase. Euphemisms can be used to disguise or render certain topics—such as profanities, sexual organs or acts, excretion, and death—more palatable. For example, euphemisms include "Geez" for "Jesus," "private parts and groin" for "genitalia," and "passed away" for "died." Most euphemisms fall into one of five different categories. The first group includes foreign terms, such as "derriere" for buttocks and "honorarium" for "payment." A second type includes abbreviations, such as "SOB." The third group consists of vague and indirect words like "behind" for "buttocks" or "unmentionables" for "underwear." The fourth type includes longer, more formal terms, such as "perspire" for "sweat" and "funeral director" for "undertaker." Mispronunciations, such as "goshdarnit" for "God damn it," make up the fifth category of euphemisms. (Source of information: "Euphemism," Word IQ Dictionary and Encyclopedia, www.wordiq.com/definition/Euphemism)

3.

Henry David Thoreau's two-year experience at Walden Pond provided the material for his widely influential literary work, Walden, or Life in the Woods. In 1836, Thoreau read and admired his friend Ralph Waldo Emerson's essay "Nature," which urged people to seek spiritual fulfillment through interaction with the natural world. In late March 1845, Thoreau decided to build a 10-by-15-foot cabin next to Walden Pond, near his childhood home in Concord, Massachusetts, on land belonging to Emerson. On July 4, 1845, just days away from his 28th birthday, Thoreau moved to his cabin. For the next two years, two months, and two days, Thoreau lived there alone and spent his time exploring the woods, observing nature, thinking, and writing. In September 1847, he left Walden Pond. Soon after, he wrote Walden, which has provoked and inspired several generations of readers since it was first published on August 9, 1854. As Elizabeth Witherell wrote in her essay "Reflections on Walden": "The book has inspired other young people to follow his example and retire to a lonely spot—even if only in imagination—to ponder the world and their place in it. Thoreau's words expressed the concerns of many of his contemporaries as industrialization and war permanently altered the world around them, just as they struck a chord in a generation of young people in the 1960s and 1970s who sought peace and simplicity in their lives."

4.

Although the three personality/behavior types—Type A, Type B, or Type C—are distinct from one another in many ways, Type C shares some similarities with both Type A and Type B. The Type A personality is identified by a cluster of personality traits that include impatience, aggressiveness, competitiveness, a sense of being under time pressure, open anger and hostility, and cynicism. The Type B individual, on the other hand, is patient, less competitive, slow to anger, easygoing, relaxed, and laid back. Like Type B people, Type C individuals seem outwardly pleasant and relaxed; however, they suppress their anger and bottle up their emotions rather than expressing them. Negative emotions such as anger, rage, jealousy, fear, and so on are the distinctive features of the Type C personality. When it comes to behavior, the Type A individual walks fast, talks fast, works late, interrupts people, hates waiting in lines, drives fast and aggressively, lashes out at others when frustrated, and does several things at one time. The actions of Type B, however, are the opposite. A Type B person does one thing at a time, doesn't feel rushed, and is able to relax without feeling guilty. Behaviorally, Type C people often resemble Type B people; however, they display a tendency to be passive, withdrawn, and willing to give up easily. They often don't say or do what they need to say or do, responding instead as though they are helpless, hopeless, or despairing. Of the three personality types, Type B is the least stressed and the healthiest. Type A and Type C individuals, though, have proven to be equally prone to heart attacks and other fatal diseases, such as cancer. (Source of information: Sharon S. Brehm et al., Social Psychology, 5th ed., Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2002, p. 511; Valery Mamonov, Ph.D., "Personality Types," http://www.longevitywatch.com/PersonalityTypes.htm)

5.

Math anxiety, also known as "mathphobia," is a feeling of intense frustration or helplessness when confronted with mathematics. For many college students, it is a disabling condition characterized by anxious thoughts that interfere with working memory and the retrieval of the knowledge necessary for completing a mathematical problem. As a result, mathphobia produces feelings of humiliation, resentment, and panic. Yet, people who suffer from math anxiety can learn to overcome their fears. First of all, they must recognize and reject the myths that may be at the root of their anxieties. For example, many Americans assume that people are born either with or without mathematical aptitude or that men are good at math while women aren't. Both beliefs are incorrect and should be discarded. The next step involves identifying past experiences, such as humiliation in the classroom or negative comments from parents at home, that have contributed to the problem of math anxiety. Realizing the part these experiences have played in the creation of anxiety helps people understand their feelings and prepare to overcome them while actually doing math problems. (Sources of information: Kaja Perina, "The Sum of All Fears," Psychology Today, December 2002, p. 19; "Coping with Math Anxiety," no author credited, www.mathacademy.com/pr/minitext/anxiety/index.asp)